WP1: Summary of results

Along with climate change, the introduction of non-native species (NNS) is widely recognized as one of the main threats to aquatic biodiversity and human well‐being. The first large piece of European legislation on NNS addressing invasive alien species (IAS) came into force in 2014 by the EU Regulation 1143/2014 on the “Prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species”. Based on Regulation, Member States (MS) should take action on pathways of unintentional introduction, measures for the early detection and rapid eradication of these species, and to manage species that are already widely spread in their territory. However, it is still not known if this regulation affected further actions in non-EU Balkan countries although MSs are obliged to foster cooperation with third countries regarding the regulation on IAS (Article 22). NNS and biodiversity are generally of low priority in the political agendas of many countries, which particularly is true for the European countries outside the EU. Furthermore, non-EU bordering countries are not obliged to enforce EU laws concerning NNS, and this could leave open invasion corridors.

Hence, the objectives and tasks addressing NNS in WBs under WP1 were:

• analyse the NNS policy regulation;
• analyse the existing environmental definitions and management plans;
• analyse the level and practice in education
• analyse the socioeconomic perception on NNS
• develop risk management practices and roadmap plans for implementing and managing risk for NNS in WBs.

Methodological approach: A survey of literature review on EU and worldwide best practices and experiences in the field of risk management of NN species was performed by the RiskMan Consortium. Education on NN species in Western Balkans was analysed in the frame of existing European practices and then was cross-matched with one another. Necessary plans and proper policy for implementation of managing risk for NNS in the Education system in WBs were developed. Finally, common good practices have been reported. The following tasks were accomplished:

• Analysis of the policy level documents and principles addressing NN species in Western Balkans
• Documented information on policy and principles related to NNS in WBs will be collected and analysed
• Analysis of existing European practice and principles for NNS in WBs
• Readily available practice and principles in Europe on risk management of NNS will be analysed in WBs
• Analysis of existing practice in Western Balkans and cross-matching with European practices and standards
• Recommendations for developing policy and plan roadmap for implementing and managing risk for NNS in WBs Education
• Good Practice Collection and Producing good practices report 

The questionnaire comprised 21 questions which addressed 5 areas (Table 1): A) Policy; B) General environmental perception; C) Educational issues; D) Project based; and E) Socioeconomic perception. Specific questions related to environmental definitions and specific education are modified according to Boon et al. (2020) and Smith et al. (2011).

Identifying the policy level documents and principles addressing NN species in Western Balkans

Impact of the EU Alien regulation (EU No. 1143/2014) on the formation of activities related to the NNS were reported by Montenegro. In Montenegro, a new legislative framework was recently adopted and applies from March 1st 2021 through Law on Alien and Invasive Alien Species of Plants, Animals and Fungi. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro are candidate members for the EU but it is not compulsory to strictly follow all the EU regulations at the given deadline. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina did not report specific Policy regulation on alien species. Convention on Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity has been signed by Bosnia and Herzegovina and this country is committed to work on control of alien species. Consequently, Bosnia and Herzegovina prepared a Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity. Albania poses Document of Strategic Policies for the Protection of Biodiversity where NN species were also addressed and signed conventions on the control and management of ships ballast water and sediments in the Adriatic Sea Region.

Identifying the environmental definitions and management plans addressing NN species in Western Balkans

Various definitions of alien species have been detected in Western Balkans but only in Montenegro is defined by Policy act. All countries considered as alien those species that have expanded their range as a result of climate change. Also, all countries considered introduced species as alien species, regardless of the date of introduction and there is not cut-off date used. A historical date as one of the criteria to determine non-nativeness of a species only Albania finds useful. All countries created national list of alien species. In Albania and Montenegro list needs to be updated. Albania and Montenegro reported non-invasive alien species on their list. No monitoring programmes specifically designed for alien species has not been reported in investigated countries. Montenegro reported some sporadic, project-based monitoring activities but without an indication that the programs will continue. Except for scientific trials, use of Risk Management Tools like AS-ISK experiences in the field of risk management of NN species has not been done in any of investigated countries.

Identifying the educational level and practice addressing NN species in Western Balkans

Most countries address NNS through educational courses related to project activities which represent main educational practice. Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina organized undergraduate and master/PhD lectures on ecological and/or socio-economic impacts of NNS and IAS. Only in Bosnia and Herzegovina lectures are given from an interdisciplinary perspective. Target groups identified for NNS educational programs in the region include students, stakeholders such as SMEs in fisheries, agriculture, tourism industry (National park, fishermen's association, sports, and recreational associations etc.) and stakeholders as policy makers (local self-government and central government authorities). Different visions of approach were identified, from global to specific, depending on the target group. Educational preparedness in Western Balkans addressing NN species is identified as low.

Identifying the previous and ongoing projects addressing NN species in Western Balkans

Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro concluded various project and most of them got external funding. Projects conducted in Albania and Montenegro were only related to Marine NNS and none covering inland waters.

Identifying the socioeconomic perception addressing NN species in Western Balkans

The public awareness of alien species in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina or Montenegro are low even in some cases people directly affected by alien invasions. Scientists are aware of NNS problems. Common activities of people were affected by blue crab in Albania and Montenegro, particularly fishermen are affected due their huge invasion in coastal areas.  Economic value of alien species are recognized and they are exploited but are referred only for fish and crayfish (marine and freshwater). All countries with coastal area are invaded by blue crab in coastal lagunas and species started to be recognized at market. In Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina there has not been any attempt to remove aquatic alien species from the environment. In Montenegro attempts were related to Caulerpa sp. and blue crab invasion. Economic and financial losses by alien species were not reported.

Overview of implemented Policy, general environmental perception, Educational issues, projects and socioeconomic perception of Programme countries

Alien species policy regulation: EU Alien regulation (EU No. 1143/2014) related to the NNS were implemented in EU Programme countries (Italy, Greece and Croatia). North Macedonia and Turkey are candidate members for the EU and it is not compulsory to strictly follow all the EU regulations at the given deadline. In North Macedonia all activities which are related to the NNS are generally related to the EU Directive or are based on the requirements of the EU Directive. Convention on Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity has been signed by North Macedonia and is committed to work on control of alien species. Turkey does not possess any related act.

Environmental definitions and management plans: Various definitions of alien species have been detected in Programme countries and all in most of EU countries is defined by Policy act. Casual species are not considered as alien species only in North Macedonia but all countries considered as alien are those species that have expanded their range as a result of climate change. All countries introduced species considered as alien species, regardless of the date of introduction and there is no cut-off date used. All countries created national lists of alien species. In Turkey a final list needs to be finalized. Greece and Croatia reported non-invasive alien species on their list. Only in Croatia monitoring programmes specifically designed for alien species was reported. Turkey reported some sporadic, project-based monitoring activities but without an indication that the programs will continue. The river basin management plans have been developed in North Macedonia and Croatia in accordance to the WFD and the national legislation but management plans are not properly implemented yet. Risk Management Tools like AS-ISK experiences were used only at academic level but in the field risk management of NN species has not been done in any of the investigated countries.

Educational level and practice addressing NN species: Most countries address NNS through educational courses related to project activities which represent main educational practice. Croatia and Turkey organized undergraduate and master/PhD lectures on ecological and/or socio-economic impacts of NNS and IAS. Target groups identified for NNS educational programs in the region include students, stakeholders such as SMEs in fisheries, agriculture, tourism industry (National park, fishermen's association, sports, and recreational associations etc.) and stakeholders as policy makers (local self-government and central government authorities). Different visions of approach were identified, from global to specific, depending on target group. Educational preparedness in Programme countries addressing NN species also is identified as low.

Previous and ongoing projects addressing NN species: Only Turkey and Croatia reported ongoing projects related to NNS aquatic species, some of them related to invasive alien species financed by European Union.

Socioeconomic perception addressing NN species: Even Turkey does not possess any national Policy act yet, it seems that citizens better perceive alien species than other Programme countries. Common activities of people were affected by blue crab in countries who have access to coastline, particularly fishermen are affected due huge invasion in coastal areas. Economic value of alien species was recognized and numerous species which are exploited belong to marine species. In Croatia and Turkey freshwater species also possess economic value, e.g. sander and gibel carp. All countries with coastal areas are invaded by blue crab in coastal lagunas and species started to be recognized at market. In programme countries have been attempting to remove aquatic alien species from the environment but only sporadically on several species. Beside attempts on removal of freshwater alien species, Turkey gives rewards to local fishers who bring proof of caught individuals. Economic and financial losses by alien species only in Turkey were reported.

​Principles in Europe on risk management of aquatic NNS: Regulation (EU) 1143/2014 on invasive alien species (the IAS Regulation) entered into force on 1 January 2015, fulfilling Action 16 of Target 5 of the EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy, as well as Aichi Target 9 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 under the Convention of Biological Diversity https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/index_en.htm. The core of the IAS Regulation is the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). The IAS Regulation provides for a set of measures to be taken across the EU in relation to invasive alien species included on the Union list. Three distinct types of measures are envisaged, which follow an internationally agreed hierarchical approach to combatting IAS:

• Prevention: a number of robust measures aimed at preventing the intentional or unintentional introduction of IAS of Union concern into the EU.
• Early detection and rapid eradication: Member States must put in place a surveillance system to detect the presence of IAS of Union concern as early as possible and take rapid eradication measures to prevent them from establishing.
• Management: some IAS of Union concern are already established in certain Member States. Concerted management action is needed to prevent them from spreading any further and to minimize the harm they cause.The European Commission has developed an information exchange mechanism to facilitate the implementation of the EU policy on invasive alien species: the European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN). It's an online platform that aims to facilitate access to existing information on alien species from a range of sources. EASIN includes a Species Search and Mapping tool, allowing for basic and advanced search of a database including over 14 000 alien species in Europe, and showing their distribution on a map. It includes the species currently on the Union list. Both the European Commission and the Member States can propose additional species for inclusion on the Union list, according to Article 4(4) of the Regulation, including a risk assessment https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/list/index_en.htm . All risk assessments are available https://circabc.europa.eu/faces/jsp/extension/wai/navigation/container.jsp

List of Relevant acts:

•  Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/1262 updating the list of invasive alien species of Union concern
• Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2018/968 with regard to risk assessments in relation to invasive alien species
• Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1454 specifying the technical format for reporting by the Member States
• Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/1263 updating the list of invasive alien species of Union concern
• Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2016/1141 adopting a list of invasive alien species of Union concern
• Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2016/145 adopting the format of the document serving as evidence for the permit issued by the competent authorities of Member States 

Roadmap plan for implementing and managing risk for aquatic NNS in Western Balkans Education

Recommendations for developing policy and plan roadmap for implementing and managing risk for NN species in Western Balkans Education is presented in the following table.

Good Practice Collection

• EU Alien regulation (EU No. 1143/2014) related to the NNS are implemented in EU Programme countries (Italy, Greece and Croatia) and in Montenegro as Partner country. From this point of view, Montenegro is more prepared than other Partner countries for further implementation and development of IAS strategy. Beside this, Montenegro borders Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina and shares inland waters as well as marine coastline which could leave open invasion corridors. Hence, common ground in the implementation of legislation between neighbouring countries is therefore urgently needed (Piria et al., 2017). Bosnia and Herzegovina signed convention on Biological Diversity and the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity and this country is committed to work on control of alien species. Albania poses Document of Strategic Policies for the Protection of Biodiversity where NN species were also addressed and this country signed conventions on the control and management of ships ballast water and sediments in the Adriatic Sea Region. This suggest that Albania is more oriented on marine biodiversity protection than inland waters. Indeed, Bosnia and Herzegovina have only 20 km length of coastline and do not use much effort in research or protection of marine environment.
• National lists of alien species are not very well developed in Western Balkans and needs updates. Additional problem with Bosnia and Herzegovina is that country is divided and do not possess unique legislative. Thus, list is developed only partial for Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and is not accepted by Republic of Srpska. However, it is not clear if list cover both, marine and freshwater species.
• Various definition of alien species has been reported and usually is regulated by Policy act in countries which already implemented NNS in Legislation. Good example in Western Balkans is Montenegro. Furthermore, it is necessary to develop more consistent definitions in relation of introduced, casual and translocated species in order to act mutually (Boon et al., 2020).
• Monitoring programmes specifically designed for alien species still have not started yet even in EU Programme countries, except of Croatia. Obviously lack of funding prevents countries starting with such activity. But anyway, several countries working on project-based monitoring activities (e.g. Turkey and Montenegro). Hence, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania still need to make much more effort in NNS projects development.
• Risk Management Tools like AS-ISK experiences were used only at academic level but, in the field, risk management of NN species has not been done in any of investigated countries.
• Most of countries addressing NNS through educational courses related to project activities which represents main educational practice. Croatia, Turkey, Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina organized undergraduate and master/PhD lectures on ecological and/or socio-economic impacts of NNS and IAS. Education level corresponds with implementation of NNS policy regulation and still is undeveloped. According to Verbrugge et al. (2020) the main challenges for IAS education are related to (1) inconsistent and ambiguous terminology, (2) communicating risk, (3) implementation of education materials, and (4) evaluation of learning effects.
• Lack of awareness and education were identified as critical for future management of NNS. The lack of formal education about NNS and consequent low awareness of their overall impact on biodiversity and economy may be having serious implications for decision making, such as commensurability (e.g. the impacts in natural ecosystems may be valued as more important than those in other ecosystems), context dependency (e.g. the impacts of alien species inside or outside the region of interest may be valued differently) or personal decision biases that can lead to conflicts in NNS valuation and management. Overall, increased knowledge amongst the general public of NNS issues and their effects on economy and native species that can come from education and public awareness campaigns will encourage political action, which is vital to improve policy and management practices on IAS (Piria et al., 2017 and references within). Citizens awareness and educational preparedness addressing NN species in all countries is identified as low and different visions of approach were identified. Target group for NNS educational programs in the region could be students, stakeholders such as SMEs in fisheries, agriculture, tourism industry (National park, fishermen's association, sports, and recreational associations etc.) and stakeholders as policy makers (local self-government and central government authorities).

Conclusions

EU Alien regulation (EU No. 1143/2014) related to the NNS is implemented in EU Programme countries (Italy, Greece and Croatia) and Montenegro as Partner country. Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina did not report specific Policy regulations on alien species. An additional problem with Bosnia and Herzegovina is its complex governmental structure and lack of a unique legislative at the national level. Albania is more oriented on marine biodiversity protection than inland waters. National lists of alien species are not very well developed in Western Balkans and need updates. Various definitions of alien species have been reported and usually are regulated by the Policy act in countries which already implemented NNS in legislation. Monitoring programmes specifically designed for alien species are established  in all EU Programme Countries (Italy, Greece, Croatia) in the context of the MSFD.  Obviously, lack of funding prevents countries from starting with such activity. Risk Management Tools like AS-ISK experiences were used only at an academic level, but  risk management of NN species has not been done in the field in any of the investigated countries. Most countries are addressing NNS through educational courses related to project activities which represent the main educational practice. Programme countries (Croatia, Turkey) and Partner countries (Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina) organized undergraduate and master/PhD lectures on ecological and/or socio-economic impacts of NNS and IAS. Education level corresponds with the implementation of NNS policy regulation and still is undeveloped. Citizens’ awareness and educational preparedness addressing NN species in Partner countries are identified as low and different visions of approach were identified. The target group for NNS educational programs in the region could be students, stakeholders such as SMEs in fisheries, agriculture, tourism industry (National park, fishermen's association, sports, and recreational associations, etc.) and stakeholders as policymakers (local self-government and central government authorities). Based at the identified current state in Western Balkan Partner countries following opportunities were identified: